Nestled in the misty hills of Ireland and the rugged coasts of the Isle of Man, the Celtic languages evoke ancient myths, epic sagas, and resilient cultures that have endured centuries of change.
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Actually, they were once spoken widely across much of Western and Central Europe. Today, the Celtic languages survive mainly on the northwestern edge of the continent, including the British Isles and Brittany in France.
The Celtic languages are divided into:
- Insular Celtic tongues, which include the living languages,
- and Continental Celtic, which are all extinct.
The Insular branch is further divided into two main groups—the Goidelic branch (also known as Gaelic branch) and the Brythonic branch. These languages carry unique sounds, histories, and literary traditions that survived many cultural and political changes through ongoing revival and preservation efforts.
Continental Celtic languages are all extinct. This branch includes the following tongues:
- Lepontic,
- Gaulish,
- Galatian,
- Noric,
- Celtiberian,
- and Gallaecian.
These languages were once spoken over a considerable area of continental Europe, spreading even to Asia (specifically to Anatolia in Turkey).
FAQ:
What language is Irish?
Do the Irish actually speak Gaelic?
How do you say hello in Irish language?
Are Irish and Gaelic the same?
Why don’t Irish people speak Gaelic?
Do Irish still speak Gaelic?
What language is Irish similar to?
Also, even though the Breton language (which falls under the Brythonic subdivision) is spoken in Brittany, France, it’s not considered a Continental Celtic language.
So, if you want to know the answer to such questions as “What is the Irish language?“, “What language do Irish people speak?”, “Is Irish the same as Gaelic?“, or “Are Irish and Gaelic the same language?“, stay with us until the end! In Ireland, both the Irish language and the English language are spoken, and Irish and English are the official languages of the Republic of Ireland. The Constitution of Ireland recognizes Irish as the national and first official language, with English as the second official language. In English, people refer to the language as ‘Irish’, while in the Irish language itself, it is called ‘Gaeilge’. When discussing naming conventions, many refer to the language as ‘Irish’, ‘Gaeilge’, or sometimes ‘Gaelic’, though ‘Gaelic’ can also refer to the broader Goidelic branch. We will tackle the above topics and way more!
What exactly are the Celtic Languages
If you’ve never heard about most of the Celtic languages, or you’re typing, “What is the difference between Irish and Gaelic?“ in Google, we’re here to explain.
The Celtic languages have their origins in the Bronze Age (approx. 3300–1200 BCE) and started with the Proto-Celtic language, spoken widely across Central and Western Europe. This ancestral tongue evolved from the broader Proto-Indo-European linguistic family around 1300 BCE. The Celtic languages belong to the Indo-European language family, and Irish is specifically part of the Goidelic branch within this family, alongside Scottish Gaelic and Manx.
As time passed, Proto-Celtic spread across Europe but was gradually replaced by expanding Romance, Slavic, and Germanic languages.
But how can we learn more about an extinct language?
The answer is: Usually from the archaic writing records.
The earliest Celtic language inscriptions appear in the 7th century BCE. A Leontic inscription, found in Italy, is believed to be the earliest known example of the Celtic writing. But when it comes to the British Isles, the earliest written evidence was found in Ireland and is referred to as Ogham (an ancient British and Irish alphabet). It appeared on stones from the 4th century BCE onwards.
Now, let’s dive deeper into the Goidelic and Brythonic branches of the Celtic languages to learn more about these fascinating tongues.
Insular Celtic Languages
The Goidelic (Gaelic) Languages
The languages of the Goidelic branch descend from Old Irish (spoken from the 6th to 10th century), which itself evolved from Primitive Irish. The latter is recorded in inscriptions dating back to around the 4th century AD.
Goidelic languages are characterized by initial consonant mutation, where the first consonant of a word changes based on grammatical context.
Another characteristic is the verb-subject-object (VSO) sentence structure, which differs from the more common subject-verb-object order in many European languages.
Goidelic languages also use inflected prepositions, combining prepositions and pronouns into single words (e.g., Irish agam, literally “at me”).
Irish has three major dialects: Connacht, Munster, and Ulster Irish. These dialects vary in both speech and orthography. Translation and orthographic reform have played a significant role in standardizing the written form of Irish across these dialects.
Irish Gaelic language
Irish is also known as Irish Gaelic or simply Gaeilge. It is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger. In English, people often refer to the language as ‘Irish’, while in Irish it is called ‘Gaeilge’. The term ‘Irish Gaelic’ is sometimes used in English to specify the language, but it is not commonly used within Ireland. ‘Gaelic’ can refer to both Irish and Scottish Gaelic, but among English speakers it is more often associated with Scottish Gaelic.
Similarly to other Goidelic languages, it evolved from Old Irish by the 6th-10th centuries. Irish has one of the oldest vernacular literatures in Western Europe, with written records dating back to the 4th century AD. Irish literature dates back to the seventh century and includes significant works that have influenced Irish identity. Many Irish authors are gaining international acclaim for writing exclusively in Irish, contributing to the language’s cultural significance. The Irish language was the majority of the population’s first language until the 19th century, when English gradually became the dominant language. Irish was once widely spoken as the primary language across Ireland and remains the first language in some Gaeltacht regions. The language was also spoken as a community language until the early 20th century on the island of Newfoundland, carried abroad by a vast Irish diaspora, particularly to Great Britain and North America.
Below are the next forms of the Irish language:
- Middle Irish (900-1200), which was spoken in Ireland, most of Scotland and the Isle of Man. It saw dialectal variation and Norse loanwords like pingin (penny).
- Early Modern Irish (1200-1600) featured Classical Gaelic, a standardized literary form shared with Scotland, amid Norman influences. Classical Gaelic introduced such terms as cúirt (court).
As English speakers became more prevalent, Irish shifted from being the dominant language to a minority language. The Gaelic League (Conradh na Gaeilge) was established in 1893 to encourage the use of Irish in everyday life and promote efforts to speak Irish. Irish words have influenced English and are an important part of Irish culture and identity. Irish is often used in political contexts, reflecting its role in Irish identity and nationalism. The Irish government collects data on the language via census; in April 2022, 1,873,997 people in Ireland declared they could speak Irish, representing 40% of respondents, but only about 72,000 people use Irish daily outside the education system. Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools in the Republic of Ireland that receive public money, and the National University of Ireland requires all students wishing to embark on a degree course to pass the subject of Irish in the Leaving Certificate or GCE/GCSE examinations. There are Irish language summer colleges in the Gaeltacht attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually, supporting opportunities for learning Irish. The modern revival of Irish in urban areas is supported by Gaelscoileanna and media, while digital tools like Duolingo and social media have significantly boosted the popularity of learning Irish among younger generations. There are also opportunities for learning Irish abroad, and it is important to specify ‘learning Irish’ outside Ireland due to the presence of other Gaelic languages.
The decline of the Irish Gaelic Language
There are several factors that contributed to the decline of the Irish language. The process itself accelerated post-1600s English colonization through bans and anglicization policies. There was also the Great Famine (1845–1852) which led to mass death and emigration, affecting the rural Irish-speaking population, in addition to breaking the chain of transmission to future generations.
Another factor that led to the decline of the Irish language was the social stigma, meaning that Irish Gaelic was viewed as the tongue of the poor and uneducated, especially as English speakers became more dominant.
The Gaelic Revival of the late 19th century promoted the language in schools and media, making it Ireland’s first official language today. There are ~70,000 daily speakers in Gaeltacht areas. According to the 2022 Census, only about 72,000 people in the Republic of Ireland use Irish on a daily basis outside the education system.
Scottish Gaelic language
Scottish Gaelic, or Gàidhlig, arrived in Scotland around the 5th century AD via Irish settlers. It evolved from the Primitive & Old Irish into a distinct form by the 13th century, with its own literature emerging in the 16th century.
One of the key features of this language is pre-aspiration. It is a slight h sound that is inserted before certain consonants (like t, c, p) and after a stressed vowel.
This sound gives a puff of air, which is one of the very characteristics of the Scottish Gaelic language.
Today, Scotland’s Census records that ~57,000 speakers claim to speak this Gaelic language fluently.
Manx Gaelic Language
Manx Gaelic, or Gaelg, developed on the Isle of Man and emerged from the Middle Irish around the 10th century.
It faced terminal decline by the mid-20th century—the last native fluent speaker, Ned Maddrell, died in 1974. The new native speakers in emerged from Bunscoill Ghaelgagh, the world’s only primary school where children are taught solely in Manx Gaelic.
Brythonic Languages
The Brythonic languages evolved from Common Brittonic spoken across Great Britain during the Iron Age and Roman periods.
After Roman withdrawal, Anglo-Saxon expansions from the 5th century displaced them eastward, while emigrating Britons carried the language to Brittany; by AD 600, dialects diverged into Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Cumbric (extinct), and possibly Pictish, marked by VSO order, mutations, and Latin loans.
Welsh
Welsh (Cymraeg) descends from Western Brittonic, which evolved from the ancestral Common Brittonic language. It developed into Old Welsh in the 800 AD, becoming a vibrant spoken and literary language with medieval manuscripts like the Mabinogion.
Despite English political dominance, Welsh maintained strength through community use, church, and later formal education.
It features initial consonant mutations, a verb-subject-object sentence order, and rich vowel systems. Modern Welsh counts over 800,000 speakers, supported by government policies, Welsh-medium schools, and media like S4C TV.
Breton
Breton (Brezhoneg) evolved after Britons migrated from Great Britain to Armorica (modern Brittany, France) between the 5th and 7th centuries, carrying Common Brittonic roots.
Despite French dominance and regional dialectal fragmentation, Breton retains Celtic phonology that is distinct from Goidelic languages.
Breton retains initial mutations (a system of changes to the beginning consonant of a word, triggered by the word that comes before it) and complex verbal morphology.
Its verb morphology involves a complex interplay between synthetic and analytic forms, with word order determining which structure is used.
The language shows considerable dialectal variation in its verb forms and constructions, especially with impersonal verbs and auxiliaries like ez eus and (a) zo.
Breton’s verbal syntax can follow either VSO or V2 (verb-second) word order depending on the clause type and context. In addition to that, the mutation system also plays a role in shaping verb forms.
Facing decline over recent centuries, Breton today sees revival efforts with bilingual education and cultural promotion, though speaker numbers are approximately 107,000 (as of 2024) and concentrated mainly in western Brittany.
Cornish
Cornish (Kernewek) was historically spoken in Cornwall, in southwestern Britain. However, it declined sharply by the 18th century as English spread. It shares core Brittonic features, such as mutations and verb patterns.
Revival began in the early 20th century, revitalizing Cornish through educational programs, written literature, and media. Now, it is still spoken in Cornwall, as it was hundreds of years ago.
Thanks to that, Cornish now has several hundred fluent speakers and learners and is recognized by UNESCO as a revived language with continuous growth.
Continental Celtic Languages
The Continental Celtic languages were once spoken widely across much of Western and Central Europe, from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the area around Ankara in present-day Turkey.
These languages, now all extinct, including Gaulish, Lepontic, Galatian, and others that flourished before and during the Roman Empire.
Gaulish, for example, was spoken in what is now France, Switzerland, Belgium, western Germany, and northern Italy. It left behind inscriptions and place names that reveal its widespread influence.
The historic reach of Continental Celtic languages reflects the expansive migration and settlement patterns of Celtic tribes across the continent during the first millennium BCE.
However, the expansion of the Roman Empire and, as a consequence, the spread of Latin, as well as displacement by Germanic tribes, led to the gradual decline and eventual extinction of these languages by the early Middle Ages (there is a theory that Gaulish was present until the 6th century).
Despite their disappearance, Continental Celtic languages contributed significantly to European linguistic heritage, influencing regional names, cultural practices, and early European history.
Lepontic
Lepontic is an ancient Alpine Celtic language spoken between 550 and 100 BC in parts of northern Italy and present-day Switzerland around Lugano, Lake Como, and Lake Maggiore.
It is attested in around 140 inscriptions written in the Lugano alphabet, derived from an archaic Etruscan script. Although considered by some scholars an early dialect of Gaulish, others classify it as a distinct Continental Celtic language.
Lepontic inscriptions include personal names, dedicatory texts, and phrases identifying a person’s father or lineage. They are among the earliest Celtic language records, with its extinction inferred from the absence of later inscriptions in Lepontic.
Gaulish
Gaulish was spoken across a large area, including modern France, Belgium, Switzerland, Northern Italy, and parts of Germany on the west bank of the Rhine, before and during Roman times.
It is, for example, known from the Coligny calendar, which was made in the 2nd century and written with the Latin alphabet.
Unfortunately, Gaulish gradually disappeared after the Roman conquest and was replaced by Vulgar Latin as the language of administration, commerce, and prestige. Nevertheless, it left traces in modern French vocabulary, especially when it comes to the terms associated with farming (like chêne (oak) or mouton (sheep)).
Gaulish included dialects like Transalpine Gaulish (in France) and Cisalpine Gaulish (in Northern Italy) and likely survived into the 6th century AD in some regions.
Galatian
Galatian was a Celtic language spoken by the Galatians, who migrated to central Anatolia (modern Turkey) in the 3rd century BC.
It shares close linguistic ties with Gaulish and is considered a member of the Continental Celtic group. The knowledge of the Galatian language comes primarily from Greek and Latin writers who recorded names, words, and tribal histories of these Celtic people. For example, thanks to these written sources we know the name Goutoumaros (or Goutoumaros) referring to the father of Bellon, a Celtic/Galatian aristocrat from the Trocmi tribe in ancient Turkey.
The language gradually disappeared with Roman and later Byzantine dominance, likely surviving into the early Middle Ages – it is believed it died out around the 6th century.
Noric
Noric Celtic was spoken in the Roman province of Noricum, roughly corresponding to modern Austria and parts of Slovenia. It was spoken in the Iron Age (1200 BC – 550 BCE). Unfortunately, the language is poorly attested, with very few inscriptions available.
Its linguistic features and timeline remain insufficiently documented, but this tongue itself contributes to the evidence of Celtic presence in Central Europe before Roman expansion (6th to 3rd centuries BCE).
Celtiberian
Celtiberian was spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, in modern-day Spain and Portugal. It combines Celtic features with influences from neighboring Iberian languages.
It is known from inscriptions written in a unique Celtiberian script (adapted from Iberian script) and the Latin alphabet.
Celtiberian is also among the best-attested Continental Celtic languages. The tongue predates Roman rule and declined after the Romanization of Hispania, leaving traces in regional place names and some vocabulary.
Gallaecian
Gallaecian was spoken in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in areas corresponding to modern Galicia, Asturias, and northern Portugal.
The language is attested mostly through short inscriptions in Latin script (names, gods, dedications like Reue, Bandi, and Apinus), names in classical texts, as well as toponyms (place/river names) like the river Miño.
Language and Culture: The Importance of Celtic Languages in Cultural Identity
The Celtic languages—Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx—are much more than just means of communication; they are the lifeblood of cultural identity for the communities that speak them. In Ireland, the Irish language is deeply woven into the fabric of Irish culture, shaping everything from traditional music and dance to poetry, folklore, and storytelling. The preservation of Irish Gaelic is seen as essential for maintaining the country’s unique cultural heritage, with many viewing the language as a living link to Ireland’s ancient past.
Scottish Gaelic and Manx also play a vital role in the cultural identity of their respective regions. These languages are celebrated in literature, music, and festivals, and are often used to express the distinctiveness of Celtic culture. Across the Celtic world, language is a powerful symbol of resilience and pride, helping communities maintain their traditions and pass them on to future generations. Whether in the lyrics of a traditional Irish song, the verses of a Scottish Gaelic poem, or the stories told in Manx, the Celtic languages continue to be a cornerstone of cultural expression and identity.
Language and Community: Building and Sustaining Celtic-Speaking Communities
Strong, vibrant communities are at the heart of any living language, and this is especially true for the Celtic languages. In Ireland, the Gaeltacht regions are renowned for their thriving Irish-speaking communities, where Irish is not just a subject in school but the language of daily life. These areas are supported by organizations like the Gaelic League (Conradh na Gaeilge), which has played a pivotal role in promoting Irish language and culture since its founding. Through language classes, cultural events, and advocacy, the Gaelic League helps ensure that Irish speakers have the resources and support they need to keep the language alive.
Similarly, in Scotland, the Scottish Gaelic community is dedicated to preserving and promoting the Gaelic language. Community initiatives, such as local language classes, cultural festivals, and support networks, help foster a sense of belonging among Gaelic speakers. These efforts are crucial for sustaining the use of the Celtic languages in both rural Gaeltacht regions and urban centers, ensuring that native speakers and new learners alike can participate in a living, dynamic culture. By building strong communities, the speakers of Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx are keeping their languages—and their cultural heritage—vibrant for generations to come.
Language and Media: Celtic Languages in Modern Media and Broadcasting
Modern media and broadcasting have become powerful tools for the promotion and preservation of the Celtic languages. In Ireland, the Irish language enjoys a strong presence in television, radio, and online platforms. TG4, the Irish-language television station, offers a diverse range of programming—from news and documentaries to drama and children’s shows—all in Irish. This visibility helps normalize the use of the Irish language in everyday life and introduces it to new audiences, both in Ireland and abroad.
In Scotland, Scottish Gaelic is similarly supported by dedicated media outlets. The BBC’s Scottish Gaelic service, including BBC Alba, provides news, entertainment, and educational content in the Gaelic language, helping to keep the language relevant in the digital age. The use of Celtic languages in media not only increases their visibility but also provides opportunities for speakers to engage with their language in new and meaningful ways. As a result, media and broadcasting are playing a crucial role in the ongoing revival and sustainability of the Celtic languages.
Language and Technology: Digital Tools and Language Preservation
The digital age has opened up exciting new possibilities for the preservation and promotion of the Celtic languages. Online language learning platforms, such as Duolingo, have made it easier than ever for people around the world to learn Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic. These digital tools offer interactive lessons, pronunciation guides, and opportunities to practice with other learners, making language learning accessible and engaging.
In addition to language apps, social media platforms and online communities provide spaces for speakers and learners to connect, share resources, and celebrate their languages. In Ireland and Scotland, digital initiatives are helping to bridge the gap between traditional language communities and a global audience, ensuring that the Celtic languages continue to thrive in the 21st century. By embracing technology, advocates of Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, and other Celtic languages are finding innovative ways to support language preservation and inspire new generations of speakers.
Language and Tourism: The Role of Celtic Languages in Attracting Visitors
Celtic languages are a key part of the cultural heritage that draws visitors to Ireland, Scotland, and other Celtic regions. For many tourists, hearing Irish or Scottish Gaelic spoken, seeing bilingual road signs, or attending a traditional music session in the local language adds an authentic and memorable dimension to their travel experience. In Ireland, the use of the Irish language in tourism materials, signage, and cultural events helps showcase the country’s rich Celtic culture and history.
Scotland, too, is leveraging the appeal of Scottish Gaelic as part of its tourism strategy, highlighting the language in visitor centers, museums, and festivals. The presence of the Celtic languages not only enhances the cultural atmosphere for visitors but also supports local communities by promoting pride in their linguistic heritage. By integrating the Irish language and Scottish Gaelic into the tourism industry, these regions can offer a unique and immersive experience that celebrates their cultural identity and attracts visitors from around the world.
Revitalization Efforts for Insular Celtic Languages
All six surviving Insular Celtic languages—Irish Gaeilge, Scottish Gaelic Gàidhlig, Manx Gaelg, Welsh Cymraeg, Breton Brezhoneg, and Cornish Kernewek—benefit from active revitalization programs amid declining native speakers.
In recent years, the Irish language has seen a modern revival in urban areas, particularly through the growth of Gaelscoileanna and increased presence in media. Digital tools like Duolingo and social media platforms have also played a significant role in promoting the Irish language, with millions of users worldwide learning Irish and influencers sharing lessons and challenges online.
Welsh
Wales pursues ambitious targets under the “Cymraeg 2050” strategy to reach one million speakers by 2050.
To reach this target, the Welsh Government implements major efforts in education (Welsh-medium schools, new qualifications, teacher training), creates more opportunities to use the language (workplace, public services), and supports communities where Welsh is strong.
Irish Gaelic Language
Ireland supports Gaeltacht regions with official language status, immersion schools (Gaelscoileanna—Irish medium schools outside the Irish-speaking regions or Gaeltacht), and media like TG4 television; recent policies expand early years childcare in Irish and integrate it into public services via the 20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language.
Irish is recognized by the Constitution of Ireland as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland, with English as the second official language. Irish is one of the official languages of the European Union, and since January 2022, it has full status as a working language of the EU. Irish is also an official language of Northern Ireland and is among the official languages of the European Parliament. The use of Irish is visible in public bodies and on public signs, such as bilingual road signs and official notices, reflecting its status and promotion in public life.
Scottish Gaelic Language
Scotland funds bilingual education via Gaelic Medium Education, Bòrd na Gàidhlig oversight (it is a nondepartmental public body of the Scottish government that is supposed to promote Scottish Gaelic and Scottish culture), and BBC Alba broadcasting.
Manx
Revival continues through Bunscoill Ghaelgagh (the Manx immersion school in St. John’s, Isle of Man), Mooinjer Veggey (a charity promoting Manx Gaelic among children), and Manx Language Strategy 2023-2027, promoting media and community use.
Also, UNESCO recognizes the language as revitalized.
Breton
Brittany’s Diwan immersion schools, cultural festivals, and digital presence (for example, Breton Wikipedia) counter French dominance. Ofis ar Brezhoneg, a public institution founded to promote and develop teaching and use of the Breton language in daily life, promotes Breton through various initiatives, such as Ya d’ar brezhoneg charter, data collection, and terminology services.
Cornish
Kernewek revival features education, cultural projects, and official recognition, involving school programs like Go Cornish, bilingual signage, modern media (music, film, digital content), and partnerships with universities to create immersive experiences.
Currently, UNESCO recognizes the Cornish language as “critically endangered”. However, it was recently reclassified from “extinct”, so that’s a huge milestone.
The Celtic Languages: Conclusions
The Celtic languages, from the extinct Continental tongues like Gaulish and Lepontic that once spanned Europe to the resilient Insular survivors—Irish Gaeilge, Scottish Gaelic Gàidhlig, Manx Gaelg, Welsh Cymraeg, Breton Brezhoneg, and Cornish Kernewek—embody a profound cultural legacy shaped by migrations, conquests, and revivals.
Despite historical declines from Roman, English, and French pressures, ongoing efforts through immersion schools, media like TG4 and S4C, national strategies such as Cymraeg 2050, and community initiatives sustain around 1-2 million speakers today. The Irish language has been carried abroad by a vast diaspora, particularly to Great Britain, North America, and other countries such as Canada, influencing cultural exchanges and the preservation of Irish identity in each country.
These languages continue to thrive via digital tools, festivals, and policy support, inviting global learners to connect with ancient myths and modern identities. In countries like Canada and the United States, Americans and others can find Irish language learning opportunities, including many community-based classes in the U.S., though very few offer college credit.
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